Taoism and Buddhism: Comparative Religious Studies in relation to other Esoteric Religions

by Satiman

It is spiritually revealing to examine the following verses of Tao Te Ching composed by the great ancient Chinese saint, Lao-tze. It unveils the secret or the Truth of all esoteric religions in terms of Man relationship with the ultimate Truth of Reality. Human personality is microcosm whilst the universe is the macrocosm. Whoever discerns the distinction between the conventional truth and the ultimate truth apprehends the relationship between mocrocosm and macrocosm.

The Way, that can be designated, is not the eternal Way
The name, that can be designated, is not the permanent name
The undesignated is the origin of cosmos
The designated is the origin of multiplicity
Eliminating desires reveals the mysterious Way
Developing desires perceives its manifestations
These two are the same
Diverge in names as they issue forth
Being the same, they are called mysteries
Mystery upon mystery
The door to the manifold mysteries

道可道非常道
名可名非常名
無名天地之始
有名萬物之母
常無欲而觀其妙
常有欲而觀其徼
此兩者
同出而異名
同謂之玄
玄之又玄
眾妙之門

Introduction

The specific objective of this article is to reveal the similarities between the tenet of Tao Te Ching expounded by Lao-tze and that of Śākyamuni Buddha in relation to other esoteric religions. The exposition of Tao Te Ching is universal in the sense that it unveils the hidden ultimate truth of Reality pertaining to the relationship between the manifest phenomena of multiplicity of the empirical world and the unmanifest eternal Essence or Absolute of the non-theistic religions. It corresponds with the relationship between the creations and God in all esoteric monotheistic religions. In Mahāyāna Buddhism, the eternal unmanifest Absolute or Essence is known as Buddha-nature or Emptiness (Śūnyatā) which should not be perceived to be a permanent substance or self-nature. Otherwise, this raises a logical paradox. In the Theravāda tradition, the universal characteristic of Insubstantiality or Non-self (anattā) is referred to. The manifest phenomena are called Appearances which are illusive and unreal in the ultimate sense. The Buddha-nature, Insubstantiality or Emptiness is the unmanifest Reality concealed by the apparent Appearances which are the knowledge of conventional truth. The Buddha-nature is the ultimate truth of Reality which is ineffable. Buddha-nature is synonymous with the Way of Truth called ‘Tao’ in Chinese language. If the word ‘Tao’ in the Tao Te Ching may be substituted with the designation ‘Buddha’ (or God), the ultimate truth revealed by Tao Te Ching is universally applicable to any major esoteric world religion, such as Hinduism or Upaniṣads, Christainity or Islam. Tao Te Ching has captivated the attention and interest of both religious and philosophy scholars. Its original version in Chinese Language has been rendered into English by many scholars or intelligentsia in many different versions.

Truth Undesignated

When it is asserted in the Tao Te Ching ‘The Way, which can be designated, is not the eternal Way’, the statement may be replaced with the statement: The Buddha Path, which can be designated, is not the eternal Way. The eternal Way is the eternal truth of Emptiness. Emptiness is the Unity of all phenomena conglomerated into a Totality or Oneness. In short, the Oneness of phenomena or beings is called Emptiness which cannot be described and designated as it is devoid of inherent existence or signless. Even the word ‘Emptiness’ should not be reified or objectified as the Buddhist concept of Emptiness is defined as neither absolute existence nor absolute non-existence. As Dependent Co-arising, the Middle View, is defined by Śākyamuni Buddha as neither absolute existence nor absolute non-existence, Emptiness of inherent existence is definitely synonymous with Dependent Co-arising. The Oneness of all phenomena or all beings is dependently co-arisen from the conglomeration of all conditioned phenomena or contigent beings to constitute an infinite totality which cannot be perceived and hence can not be described. All the wise men, having intuitively apprehended this infinite totality become the saints – the men of perfect virtue who become the perfect masters. The perfect masters are exponents of the Word of the Buddha in Buddhism or the messengers of God in the monotheistic religions. In Theravāda Buddhism, the perfect masters are the Arahants. They are designated as Bodhisattvas in the Mahāyāna tradition. In Taoism, the perfect masters are called Tao masters who have entered Tao. In Islam, they are known as the Sufis. The genuine Sufis admit a common identical truth for all other esoteric religions- the Unity of beings. The Sufi doctrine of unity of beings does not differ from the Mahāyāna doctrine of Emptiness. Since the ultimate truth is one and not two, the equality of ultimate truth of Reality expounded in different religions is expected. All these perfect masters are characteristized by a common glimpse of right vision - they do not perceive any discrimination in all religions. All men and women are brothers and sisters dwelling in the oneness of the world without any dichotomy. They do not perceive any sign or diversity in all phenomena – neither the signs of Americans nor Europeans nor Asians. United Nations can help the world but only genuine religions can save the world. Before concepts and designations existed, Lao-tze declared that non-conceptualization or non-designation was the commencement of the universe or cosmos. The commencement of concepts and designations gave rise to the false perceptions of the multiplicity or manifoldness of the world or universe. Lao-tze added further that once, men commenced to construct concepts and designations, the signs, marks or characteristics called individual identities came into existence. This marked the beginning of the multiplicity or myriad things of the world or cosmos. Individual identities are either self-natures or other natures conceived erroneously with the superimposition of the notions of I, me, Mine, you, your s and so forth. Śākyamuni Buddha expounded that the discrimination or duality between self and others are mere illusions fabricated by the ignorance of the worldlings. As the multiplicity is fabricated by erroneous mental constructs, the multiplicity is a mere a cosmic illusion (māyā) which appears real but is actually unreal.

Selfish or Egoistic Self

When the selfish or egoistic self is annihilated, the hidden eternal Essence called Tao is manifest. When the selfish or egoistic self dominates, the illusive phenomena or myriad beings are manifest. The former is the manifestation of True self called the Buddha-mind or Dharmabody of a Tathāgata in Buddhism. The latter is called the manifestation of False self which activates greed, hatred and delusion in response to the environmental stimuli. The True born after the False self is dead. All esoteric religions is aimed at killing the False self in order to bring forth the True Self. The word ‘Desires’ asserted in the verse ‘Eliminating desires reveals the mysterious Way.’ corresponds with selfish desires rooted in the false notion of Iness or Miness which do not actually exist. The ’Mysterious Way’ corresponds with the eternal principle of Tao or eternal Essence or Absolute called Buddha-nature in Mahāyanā Buddhism. The word ‘Desires’ in the next verse ‘ Developing desires perceives its manifestations’ refers to the dominance of the illusive selfish or egoistic self. The Tao or Buddhahood is realized when the following two key conditions are satisfied:

1. The Selfish or egoistic self is annihilated
2. The illusion of multiplicity is penetrated into 

Manifest and Unmanifest

The word ‘Two ‘ of the next verse ‘The two are the same’ refers to the manifest multiplicity and the hidden Tao or Buddha-nature. They are the same in the sense that they are dependently co-arisen from the same principle of interdependence. The multiplicity is the shadow or image of the Tao or Buddha-nature. Without the multiplicity, the Tao or Buddha-nature can not be perceived or experienced. The reflected moon in the water points to the direction of the moon in the sky. Without the Tao or Buddha-nature, the image or shadow of Tao or Buddha-nature called multiplicity is not formed. No moon in the water can be reflected if the real moon in the sky does not exist. This affirmation should be interpreted thus: The conventional truth of multiplicity and the ultimate truth of Buddhahood co-exist and interpenetrate. The untruth and the truth are dependently co-arisen. Likewise, in all other esoteric monotheistic religions, the creatures or creations are the shadows or images of God. The arising of creatures or creations are contigent upon God. Without God, there exist no creatures or creations. The metaphor of mirror and images explicates this interrelationship between the manifest multiplicity and unmanifest Essence clearly. If the relationship between the phenomena and the Principle is intuitively discerned, the distinction between the conventional truth and the ultimate truth is self-realized. Nāgārjuna expounded in his Mūlamadhyamakakārikā that whoever perceives the distinction between the conventional truth and the ultimate truth apprehends the profound message of the Buddha.

Conclusion

Both the multiplicity and the Essence or Absolute dependently arise from the same Root (Principle) of the universe and yet they have two dissimilar names. This identity of diversities itself is a mystery. The Root is also a mystery. This mystery of the mystery is the key to unlock the door of manifold secrets of the world or universe. An identical key is also found in the teaching of all esoteric religions which redeem oneself to make an inward journey toward the Origin of the multiplicity. From the Origin, the multiplicity is evolved; from the self-awakening to the illusion of the multiplicity, one undergoes involution and redeems oneself to the Origin. Life is just a merry-go-round – from suffering to the cessation of suffering! The circle is itself another mystery ! The mystery is finally dissolved with the entrance of Tao or the development of Mahāyāna Buddhist Perfection of Wisdom. Tao Te Ching may serve as a universal guidebook or manual to genuine adherents of all esoteric religions as Tao Te Ching is strictly a philosophy and not a religion. Being non-sectarian, the treasure of Tao Te Ching is universal and it is a common asset of mankind despite dissimilar religious adherences among them. Though it was revealed by Lao-tze, the Chinese never claims that it is theirs. It is for all mankind. There is no wonder that so many western scholars have translated this precious philosophical heritage of Lao-tze from Chinese to many other languages hitherto. But unfortunately, the world in general has not taken a serious examination of it. One of the reasons of the aloof attitude is due to abstruse philosophy and the other one is its ineffability. It is beyond the comprehension of the ordinary worldlings. Even the secular intelligentsia may not grasp its abstruse quintessence. Nevertheless, if one is well trained and instructed in Buddhism or any other esoteric religion, it is possible to grasp the esoteric message communicated by Lao-tze. Legend has it that Lao-tze left his noble message to a Chinese border security guard without making any elaboration. According to Mahāyāna tradition, the ineffable Tao or Buddhahood can be realized through gradual enlightenment by undertaking gradual, progressive cultivation of three-fold training of morality, concentration and wisdom. Concentration can only be actualized through meditation. For the highly witted practitioners, Tao or Buddhahood can be self-realized through sudden method of enlightenment without involving any method of meditation. The instantaneous enlightenment occurs after one experiences a sudden leap of intuitive penetration into the ultimate truth of Reality – the Totality of all phenomena or Emptiness or Dependent Co-arising which instantaneously eliminates the illusive perception of the illusion of the multiplicity with the immediate resultant of annihilating the selfish or egoistic self completely.

The old generation of Chinese always admonished their offsprings thus: If you do not listen to the Ancient, you are always at the disadvantage. I personallyconcur with this piece of golden advice as I have personally experienced countless disadvantages before I developed a profound interest in religion and philosophy. Today, I use it as a mental shield to protect myself against all forms of predicaments and challenges of life.