Mūlamadhyamakārikā (MMK.8)中觀論頌 :
Examination of Action and Agent Karma-kāraka-parīkṣā

By Paramartha

Introduction

In the early Discourses of Śākyamuni Buddha, the Exalted One expounds that ‘Karma’ is volitional action (saṃskāra). The sum total of all volitional actions or karmas constitute the dispositions of the human personality of an ordinary worldling. The Exalted one categorically denies the existence of self or ego which is illusive. All other monotheistic esoteric religions also reject this illusive animal or lower self. This is universal exposition of all esoteric religions. It is perceived as the source of human imperfection, suffering and the sole obstacle to deliverence. Whoever manifests one’s individual consciousness, rooted in this animal or lower self, can not perceive Buddha or God. Pantheistically or theosophically speaking, both Buddha and God are synonymous. These dissimilar designations refer to the universal Truth of Unity or Non-duality in terms of the principle of Dependent Co-arising. Therefore, the Buddha promulgates that whoever conceives self or ego as This is I; This is Mine; This belongs to me can not perceive the Buddha or ultimate Truth of Unity or non-duality.

According to the Buddha, the human personality is merely a conglomeration of the Five Aggregates (Pañcakkhandhā) empty of Self or Ego. The Five Aggregates are Form, Feelings, Perceptions, Volitions and Consciousness. The Five Aggregates are selfless or egoless and therefore impermanent and mutable. The Buddha declares that there is no permanent, immutable agent called self nor ego which regulates the sensual activities of the human activities. The notion of self or ego is superimposed by the ignorance or the deluded view of the ordinary worldlings.

Really Existent Entity

The Sarvāstivāda School expounded the doctrine of permanent, immutable self-nature or intrinsic nature (svabhāva).The Sarvāstivādins maintained that self-nature is a really existent entity (sadbhūta). They posited that this really existent entity traverses tri-temporarily, namely the past time, the present time and the future time. They asserted that when a phenomenon undergoes a movement or change due to the operation of the law of causality (cause and effect), the permanent essence of the self-nature does not undergoes change but only its quality, quantity, characteristic or form has undergone change. In other words, the cause and effect are identical in essence or substance (self-nature).Nāgārjuna adopted his dialectic device of reduction ad absurdum (utilizing the position of an opponent to silence or defeat the opponent by raising a logical paradox) to refute erroneous view of his substantialist opponents thus:

If the self-nature remains unchanged in the process of movement or change, how could causal efficiency be generated ?

The Sarvāstivādins exerted that the self-nature is the agent of activities. If the self-nature is a really existent entity, there should be no causal activity because the self-nature is a permanent and immutable substance. Being permanent and ummutable, it is like a tree stump that remains motionless or immutable. The self-nature cannot be an agent (kartṛ) of activities because it is an independent, permanent and immutable unconditioned causally. Conversely, an agent is one which or who can create or perform activities. An agent is an actor. An Actor must produce an action or activity. Self-nature is static while an agent is dynamic. Therefore, self-nature and agent are mutually exclusive and distinct. This is logical paradox raised by the dialectic skill of reductio ad absurdum of Nāgārjuna. He floored his opponents immediately by capitalizing the logical paradox contained in the argument of the substantialist opponent. Nāgārjuna was adept at raising a logical paradox through astute and invincible debating and refuting  strategy of reduction ad absurdum.

We can learn two elements of infallibility from this towering philosopher of Mahāyāna, Nāgārjuna. Firstly, it is his discernment of the Buddhist pantheism or theosophy. Secondly, we can emulate his disputational skill to outwit any intellectual opponent. Nāgārjuna’s wisdom of pantheism is as brilliant as that of the towering Islamic figure of Sufi Ibn ‘Arabi. These two highly celebrated religious philosophers expound pantheism dissimilarly but communicate the identical message of salvation or deliverance.

We now return to the heretical substantialist view of Sarvāstivādins. As self-nature is permanent and immutable, the change in its quality, quantity or characteristics in the process of change or causality can not be satisfactorily or logically explained by Sarvāstivādins.. This posited process of change is another logical paradox too. It reflects that there is an action without an agent. Whenever there is an action, there must be a corresponding agent The non-existent agent produces existent action. This is the second logical paradox identified by Nāgārjuna. It mirrors that there is an effect without a cause. Nāgārjuna dialectic strategy was so sharp that the opponents were instantly silenced and floored when logical paradoxes are identified and raised by Nāgārjuna.

But it would be a mistake and equally incorrigible to think that Nāgārjuna rejects the notion of agent. He, in apologizing the Word of the Buddha, denies only the independent existence of an agent or action. He defended the tenet of the Buddha that the agent and the action are not two separate entities but are dependently co-arisen. The agent and action must co-exist. Therefore, he affirmed thus:

An agent proceeds depending upon action and action
proceeds depending upon the agent. We do not perceive
any other way of establishing (them).

MMK.8.12

He emphasized that the agent and action co-exist on the basis of the natural law of Dependent Co-arising (Pratītasamutpāda). There is no other way to establish the relation between the agent and action. In other words, Unity or Dependent Co-arising is one and the only eternal Truth. All esoteric monotheistic regions also proclaim that the Unity is the Absolute Truth and multiplicity is merely cosmic illusion.

 If the concept of agent is rejected, it is difficult to explain the concept of ‘Grasping’. ‘Grasping’ is a key doctrine in Buddhist tenet. A life of reduction of grasping contributes to mundane or worldly rewards, such as rebirth into heaven. The complete eradication of grasping culminates in emancipation or Nirvāṇa. Grasping is contigent upon both agent and action. Agent and action can not be separated to produce an activity. With the mind of self-grasping, agent and action are perceived as two discrete entities. This contradicts with the Law of Dependent Co-arising which explains the truth of Unity as the Absolute Truth. Unity is One in Many; Many in One. The One is the Truth and the Many is the illusion.

Conclusion

The purpose of Nāgārjuna’s refutations or critiques of the heretical views of the metaphysicians and substantialists is not to win philosophical disputations but to defend the authentic Word of Śākyamuni Buddha from being sullied or contaminated. Nāgārjuna was fully aware that unfriendly disputations cause remorse. Remorse impedes the noble path to self-enlightenment, knowledge or Wisdom and the cessation of suffering.

Editor’s Note:

The enterprise of MMK composed by Nāgārjuna is to purify the contaminated teachings of Śākyamuni Buddha so that the purity of the Word of the Exalted One is preserved. MMK, an important treatise of Mahāyāna tradition and Kathāvatthu, one of the seven treatises of Theravāda Abhidhamma are identical in their general objective. Both apologize or defend the authentic tenet of the Buddha. The Theravāda-Mahāyāna distinction has been exaggerated by the respective dogmatic adherents. In actuality, the fundamental teaching of the Buddha is evident in both traditions throughout the centuries. They are the differing interpretations presented by unenlightened adherents which have caused the split or schism of Saṅgha. In actuality, all major esoteric religions are pantheistic communicating an identical eternal Truth of Unity or Non-duality. A right knowledge of Pantheism or Theosophy will eliminate religious, racial differences,and political discriminations which are the roots of current clashes of civilizations.