Mūlamadhyamakārikā(MMK)中觀論頌:
Chapter 12: Examination of Suffering Duḥkha-parīkṣā - Part I
By Paramartha
Introduction
This chapter deals with the causations (hetukaṃ̣) of suffering. The four theories of causation mentioned in verse one of chapter one on ‘The Examination of Conditions’ are rejected by Nāgārjuna in defence of the authentic teaching of Śākyamuni Buddha. The four theories of causation are as follows:-
- Self-causation
- Other causation
- Both self and other causation
- Neither self nor other causation
These four theories of causation are valid only if they are perceived from the vision of the conventional truth. However, the knowledge of conventional truth is mere false human imagination on the basis of the Substantial view of ontology. Substantial view opposes the right view of Insubstantial view of Buddhology. It is illusory and unreal. They are rejected by Śākyamuni Buddha in terms of the knowledge of ultimate Truth of Dependent Co-rising (Pratītyasamutpāda).
5th Truth
Nāgārjuna regards only Dependent Co-arising as the 5th theory to be considered as the only valid theory to explain the causation of suffering. Dependent Co-arising conveys the universal Truth of Unity or Non-duality applicable to all religions. In the ultimate sense, they are wrong views of ontology.
His dialective devices of ratiocination and reductio ad absurdum seems to be based on the exposition of the Acela-kassapa-sutta [S.N]. The Buddha recognizes that one is responsible for one’s action. This is evident from the affirmation that he makes as follows:-
An action is performed by oneself.
Attanā va kataṃ kammaṃ
This affirmation should be taken as conventional truth [saṃvṛti satya] with the assumption that there is no metaphysical agent involved in the action.
Self-causation
Nāgārjuna rejects that suffering is self-caused. The Buddha elaborated the notion of self-causation thus:
He acts and he himself reaps the consequence.
So karoti so pațisaṃvediyati.
The Buddha rejects this theory of self-causation because it is assumed by the metaphysician that an agent of action called soul performs the action. In fact, the ordinary worldlings and even some Buddhist scholars misconceive ātman to be ‘I’ (Ahaṃkāra) and Mine (mamaṃkāra). Ātman is, in truth, the micro-essence of Brahman parallel to the concept of Buddhist concept of Buddhadhātu (Buddha-nature). Hinduism and Buddhism are exoterically or externally dissimilar but esoterically both are identical. Buddhism has been esoterically incorporated into modern Hindusim. Buddhism is still esoterically alive in India through the philosophy of modern Hinduism. Buddhism apparently is said to have disappeared from modern India. In actuality, it has been incorporated into the philosophical melting pot of Hinduism.
Gotama Buddha advocates Anattā (Non-Self) and rejects the agency theory of causation. Anattā, in truth, is a universal esoteric religious doctrine which states that self or ego is illusive and is superimposed by human religious ignorance. The notion of ātman has erroneously and incorrigibly been mixed with the teaching of self or ego (ahaṃkāra). Ātman equals Brahman which is eternal. It can not be destroyed. Ahaṃkāra is impermanent and can be obliterated by wisdom (prajñā ). Their distinction should be very lucid in order to avoid unnecessary philosophical disputation. Ātman equals the inner Heart of the mental intuition whilst the Ahaṃkāra equals the ordinary intellectual mind directed and empowered by self-centric ego.
Other Causation
The Buddha also rejects the theory of other causation which states that:-
One acts and other experiences the consequences.
Añño karoti añño pațisaṃvediyati.
This implies that A performs an evil deed on B who suffers as a result. A is perceived as an external factor of causation relative to B which suffers or rejoices from the bad or good action of A. This is the general view of all ordinary worldlings who conceive that all our vexations or sufferings are caused externally. In this sense, we have the propensity to blame others for our failures or misfortune. Every experienced of pleasure or displeasure and like or dislike is dependently co-arisen from a multiple contigent conditions not from a single condition, such as an enemy. We need two hands minimally to produce a sound. A single hand does not work.
Generally monotheists, ignorant of the Truth of God, conceives that God is the external al-mighty agent which determines human destiny. They conceive that a human being plays no role to determine his or her own destiny. Such inaccurate knowledge of God is disastrous because it destroys human free will and personal efforts. Such fatalistic determinism renders human mind impotent. Śākyamuni Buddha arose to liberate from such wrong world view of life. Right view of Monotheism also rejects such view of fatalism which kills human freedom to determine his or her own agendas of life. In reality, God does not decide the life agendas for us. Man is endowed with the freedom to choose the path of happiness or the path of sorrow. The common religious maxim which states that “God saves only those who save themselves.” ought to be interpreted thus:
Those, who save themselves by adhering to the commandments, are saved by the Word of the God.
When one adheres to the Truth or Law of Nature, one makes and does not break the mould. To be saved by God is to be saved by the knowledge of the eternal Truth preached by God. The knowledge of God or Truth must be learnt and rightly discerned to save oneself. God is Truth; Truth is God. One must strive to liberate oneself by the knowledge of Truth not by the personal power of God. There is no free lunch in the world. Success or achievement is a phenomenon dependently co-arisen from the unity of contigent conditions. It is the harmony of contigent conditions that create the required becoming or event. Conversely, failure or downfall is a phenomenon dependently co-arisen from the unity of defective conditions or insufficient contigent conditions. In other words, failure or defeat is the result of disharmony of condition. Unity makes and disunity breaks.
Sarvāstivādins’ View
The Sarvāstivādins regard suffering as a mere quality like any other quality or attribute that characterizes the substance This Buddhist school postulated the doctrine of self-nature (svabhāvavāda). Self-nature is a permanent substance. This doctrine of permanent substance is not compatible with the Buddhist fundamental doctrine of Insubstantilaity (Anattā) and Dependently Co-arisen unity ( Pațiccasamuppāda). Hence, the Doctrine of Self-nature of this school was vigorously refuted by Nāgārjuna.
This duality perception of substance-attribute discrimination implies that the substance and the attribute are two separate entities. The substance gives rise or produces the attribute or quality. The substance is the cause and the attribute or quality is the effect. The cause substantially and directly produce the substantial effect. In other words, it is the person which causes suffering to himself or to others. The substance is the ‘I’ which causes the suffering experienced. The suffering experienced is the attribute or quality.
Nāgārjuna was astute and sharp to refute thus: A substance has a permanent self-nature. Being permanent, it does not undergo change. How can a permanent substance gives rise or produce change in terms of quality or form? Quality is changeable. How could a unchangeable substance produce changeable quality ? How can a originally cold rock become hot by itself ? We may respond that it is the heat of sun which has raised its temperature. If original rock is cold and its self-nature is coldness, it should remain constantly cold under all circumstances.If a rock can change its temperature, it is conditioned by the external condition. If it can be conditioned, it does not possess an immutable self-nature. Such an investigation unveils that nothing in this world has a permanent, immutable self-nature. It also reveals that becoming is conditioned by contigent conditions. Śākyamuni Buddha reiterated this Truth of Dependent Co-arising in many occasions in his 45 years of discourses in India in the 6th century B.C.E. in actuality, Dependent Co-arising which connotes Unity and Non-duality is the ultimate Reality sought by all religions. Dependent Co-arisen Unity or Non-duality rejects unreal truth of multiplicity or duality.
Intrinsic Nature
According to the doctrine of self-nature (svabhāva), a lazy man is one who is inborn with the permanent self-nature of laziness. His self-nature of laziness produces his attribute of idleness or indolence. Common knowledge tells us that laziness is not a permanent human trait. It can be eliminated or destroyed by proper motivation(s). For instance, a lazy man can be motivated to change his behaviour by offering a lucrative finiancial incentive or promotion to him. It can also be mentally transformed by altering his worldview, that is, by the paradigm shift. Buddhism offers us hope by highlighting that impermanent mundane or conventional realities can be changed by transmuting or changing our attitude toward life or worldview. All forms of becoming are the results of conditioning under the operation of the natural law of Dependent Co-arising. Buddhism educates and edifies us that positive, wholesome kammas can alter one’s destiny either for the better. Wholesome kammas elevate an individual whilst unwholesome kammas cause one’s downfall. Most importantly, the purification of mind saves a person completely by transforming an ordinary wordling into a man of wisdom. Nothing in the phenomenal world is permanent and immutable except the Buddha.
Nevertheless, religions gives us hope and self-confidence. It rekindles one’s self-esteem. It a road map that guides one to rectify or improve the contigent conditions affecting one’s life. Since, the contigent conditions are impermanent, they are changeable. Being changeable, they are improvable or replaceable. Hence, it is evident, the quality of one’s life can be improved by improving the contigent conditions. Man is the one who improve or replace the defective conditions. The Buddha or God does not do it for us. We save ourselves through our own efforts. Religion preaches that Man is the master of his or her environment. Man is either conditioned to succeed or to fail. These are only two major consequences of human life. We make the choice ourselves. Successful life is matter of selecting the conducive contigent conditions. Religion is, in truth, very pragmatic in human life.
To be continued ... |
