Dīgha Nikāya : Overview of the Early Long Discourses of the Buddha (2/2)

Wong Weng Hon

Accumulation of Merits

Even today in Asia, there are many ‘Buddhists’ as well as non-Buddhists who perform animal sacrifices in order to obtain blessings and accumulate merits. The Kūțadanta sutta (DN5) educates us that accumulation of merits originates from practice of virtue but not from performance of bloody sacrifices. This religious mental revolution was initiated by Upaniṣads before the emergence of Buddhism in Asia. Gotama Buddha promulgates that the highest blessing is arisen from the perfection of knowledge and conduct through the actualization of the Noble Eight Fold Path. Both Upaniṣads and Buddhism emerged in India to edify and reengineer the minds of superstitious religious believers or devotees that bloodless wisdom and virtue but not ritualistic, bloody sacrifices are the highest blessings. Selfless generosity or giving to help the needy is the highest blessing. This Sutta is significant as it brings about religious mental revolution so that religion is worshipped properly with the right view of the world and the Absolute Truth . It is sad to prehend that what had been spiritually rectified by Buddhism and Vedānta about 2,500 years ago in India are being repeated in Buddhist and Hindu countries in Asia in our current modern civilizations . Buddhism and Vedānta recommend the practice of esoteric wisdom or knowledge of Truth and not exoteric ritualism to improve or even consummate human morality and wisdom or right religious knowledge of Truth so that we are morally restrained and friendly towards others.

Serenity and Insight Meditation

The Poțțapāda-sutta (DN.9) is recommended for the serenity (samattha) meditators who work to develop his mundane and supramundane mental absorptions (jhānas)and six supernormal knowledges. Progressive development of the jhānas is elucidated clearly in this sutta. It forms the cornerstone for the development of insight (vipassanā) or wisdom (paññā). The serenity Meditation must be followed by the insight meditation in order to finally reach the goal of salvation. The salvation is the summit of the Buddhist meditation culture culminating in attaining the soteriological goal of freedom known as Nibbāna. Nibbāna is sought to appease one’s mind so that we annihilate human fallibilities of malevolence and promote and foster the virtue of benevolence.

The Mahāsatipațțhāna-sutta (DN22) is a very important sutta which serves as an ideal to establish one’s mundane and supramundane jhānasand six supernormal knowledge. The progressive development of the jhānas is elucidated clearly in this sutta. It forms the foundation for the development of insight into the three universal characteristics of Impermanence (Anicca), Suffering (Dukkha) and Insubstantiality (Anattā). Anicca, Dukkha and Anattā seem to be simple from the intellectual perception of conventional truth. Nevertheless, they are very profound and soteriogically significant if they are intuitively discerned. They are not as simple as we intellectually or conceptually conceive. The world is lack of Arahants because they are actually abstruse in terms of ultimate Reality. An Arahant is a supermodel of prefect wisdom and virtue.

The establishment of the four foundations of mindfulness (cattāri satipațțhāna) obliterates the self-centric ego leading to the complete destruction of cankers (āsavas). Therefore , Mindfulness is the core of Buddhist practice leading to the self-actualization of Nibbāna. Nibbāna is the complete silence of the chatter of the human mind by which self-redemption in the inner Heart occurs. Self-redemption is liberation (vimutti). Self-redemption is an esoteric return to original supremacy of Man. Nibbāna is the perfection of human development.

The right mindfulness and clear awareness are executed so that there is no grasping (upādāna) upon the five aggregates (pañcakkhandhā) as this is I; this is mine ; this belongs to me. Grasping or clinging is directed and empowered by illusively superimposed self-centric ego. The superimposition is generated by ignorance of ultimate Truth. Wisdom and virtue are arisen from the annihilation of self-centric ego. Self-centric ego is obliterated by knowledge of ultimate Truth – the right world view which is the paradigm shift from conventionally reified concepts to ultimate vision of dynamic process becoming. Process becoming is dynamic cosmic unity in which creative advance occurs. It is dynamic Unity in dynamic multiplicity; dynamic multiplicity in dynamic Unity. The Theravādins discerns the dynamic holism as Impermanence and Insubstantiality. The intuitive discernment of Impermanence and Insubstantiality produces Arahanthood which terminates suffering. The termination of suffering should be conceived rightly as the product of wisdom and virtue.

Three-fold Training

Subha-sutta (DN10) deals with the ariyan morality, ariyan concentration and ariyan wisdom. The Word ‘ariyan’ means ‘noble; perfect; or unsurpassed’. This sutta serves as a useful guide to the serenity and insight meditators. The three-fold Buddhist training of morality-concentration-wisdom produces Buddhist sages or Arahants unsurpassed in knowledge and conduct. The products of the training are the rewarding fruits of six supernormal knowledges enumerated as follows:

The supernormal knowledge of pychokinesis
The supernormal knowledge of clairaudience
The supernormal knowledge of telepathy
The supernormal knowledge of retrocognition
The supernormal knowledge of clairvoyance
The supernormal knowledge of destruction of cankers

The first five supernormal knowledges are not so important relatively to the sixth one. The first five supernormal knowledges can be acquired any non-Buddhist yogis who have developed four basic jhānas. The most crucial attainment is the sixth supernormal knowledge of the annihilation of self-centric ego. The annihilation of self-centric ego is the compulsory requirement to actualize salvation. This is the communal Truth of Wisdom sought by all religions which employ diverge skillful means (upāyas) to annihilate self-centric ego. Self-centric ego should be obliterated as it is producer of greed (lobha) , hatred (dosa) and delusion (moha). When the self-centric ego has been annihilated, the mental intoxicants or cankers of a liberated Buddhist are also destroyed. Buddhists and Non-Buddhists utilize dissimilar expedient means or devices (upāyas) to obliterate the self-centric ego. Dissimilar religions connotes that dissimilar approaches or skillful means are adopted to actualize the same soteriological goal - the complete annihilation of self-centric ego.

Performance of Miracles

Kevaddha-sutta (DN11) reminds all Buddhists that Gotama Buddha does not favour the display of psychic powers miracles in public for entertainment purposes. The Vinaya states that display of miraculous psychic powers to gain extra favour from devotees is a wrong act. Such egoistic display of miracles inflates one’s ego and impedes one’s spiritual progress. Gotama Buddha stresses that the development of the specialized supernormal capacities or miraculous powers to impress or awe the spectators are not encouraged spiritually. What is most critical is the direct discernment of Truth to annihilate the cankers. The removal of cankers is the annihilation of self-centric ego. The struggle to defeat one’s self centric ego is the supernormal knowledge highly extolled by the Exalted One. A monk or nun is considered to have transgressed his or her Vinaya precepts if he or she makes a false claim of miraculous psychic attainment which he or she has not really actualized it. This transgression of Vinaya is considered a grave (pārājika) offence. The punishment is immediate and automatic expulsion from the Saṅgha . The pārājijka offender ceases to be in communion with the monastic community instantaneously.

The Pāțika-sutta (DN24) reveals the fact that Gotama Buddha seldom displayed superhuman feats and miracles visible to the public. But sometimes he had exercised secretly his supernatural powers invisibly in order to have a prior understanding of the aspirations and backgrounds of his prospective Dhamma listeners or audience before they came to challenge his wisdom. Gotama Buddha seldom displayed miracles visible to the public. Sometimes, Gotama Buddha displayed his supernatural powers at the requests of his Dhamma audience purely for the sake of preaching only and for invigorating their faith in the Dhamma and the Lord. Only those who have developed the four basic mental absorptions (jhānas) are capable of acquiring the first five supernormal knowledges of miraculous psychic powers.

Both the Buddhists and non-Buddhists can attain these five supernormal knowledges through concentration meditation (Samādhi bhāvanā). However, the attainment of the 6th supernormal knowledge of destruction of cankers or corruptions of the mind is confined solely to those who have obliterated the self-centric ego or the grasping upon the five aggregates. The obliteration self-centric ego and grasping is contigent upon the intuitive Truth discernment or self-enlightenment not through intellectual understanding. Enlightenment is the domain of intuitive understanding of Impermanence (Anicca) and Insubstantiality (Anattā) of all phenomena. Intellectual understanding is confined only to substantial ontology of static becoming. Only one with intuitive realization or gnosis can discern the ultimate Reality of dynamic process becoming. Dynamic Process becoming is Process Thought of dynamic dependently co-arisen non-dual Unity of all contigent conditions contained in the entire universe. Process Thought eliminates reified concepts or substantial view of the empirical world. On the basis of Process Philosophy, Science corroborates Buddhism and Buddhism corroborates Science.

Performance of Generosity/Giving

Lohicca Sutta (DN12) encourages us to perform generosity or giving of knowledge and material wealth. If one does not share one’s knowledge and material wealth with others, it is tantamount to an act of selfishness and non-compassion. This is because such selfishness and non-compassion are surely detrimental to the interest and welfare of others and are also hindrances to his own practice. Most significantly, this sutta touches on the credentials of a good Dhamma teacher (monk, nun or lay Buddhist) who is not blameworthy. Fundamentally, a blameless teacher is one who does not transgress the precepts, practises the four foundations of mindfulness in order to guard his six sense doors well. Most significantly, he has comprehended the Four Noble Truths rightly. He or she is a Dhamma supermodel to be emulated .

Buddhist Epistemology

Tevijja Sutta (DN13) discloses to us the Buddhist theory of knowledge (epistemology). This sutta mirrors that Gotama Buddha himself is an empiricist . An empiricist is a logical positivist according to the modern western empiricist philosophers. An empiricist or logical positivist is one who only considers that knowledge acquired is only valid if and only if it is derived and verified empirically or using the six senses. In other words, valid knowledge is only derived empirically and can also be verified empirically. In other words, an empiricist or a logical positivist is a verificationist.

The Upaniṣadic philosophy of the Brahmins advocates that a yogi who intuitively perceives the Ātma-Brahmā equation will be reunified with Brahmā upon death. Gotama Buddha asked the Brahmins whether any one of the Brahmin gurus or seers in the present generation as well as those in the past generations had seen brahmā face to face in the brahmā ‘s world. They responded in the nagative. Then, Gotama Buddha recommended a more workable way to see brahmā face to face. He instructed them that in order to see brahmā personally, one needs only to develop mental absorptions (jhānas) through tranquil (samatha) meditation. Having developed the four sublime states of lovingkiness, compassion sympathetic joy and equanimity through development of jhānas, one is capable of travelling to the brahmā world by the supernatural power of psychokinesis or by being reborn into thebrahmā world upon death to see brahmā face to face. This perception of Brahmā is merely the seeing of a higher deva in a higher level of the heavenly world. Deva brahmā is distinct from God Brahman. God Brahman is pure, infinite, eternal and immutable. He cannot be seen with the human senses. God Brahman like transcendental Buddha or Allah is the Truth of Unity or Non-duality which can only be intuitively discerned and realized. In order to know Brahman, one must know one’s True Self. One’s True Self is the cosmic Self. The cosmic Self is Brahman , Buddha or Allah. The deva brahmā in the realm of the World of Form is still a sentient being.

To convince the Brahmins, the Buddha informed them that some of his disciples who had developed the five supernormal knowledge had met and seen deva brahmā face to face in the Brahma’s world. Mind you, the Buddha was not joking ! Any yogi who has developed the psychic powers can travel to the world of brahmās to meet him in person. The Brahmā mentioned here is only a higher deva residing in the heavens of higher gods (small letter ‘g’). This deva brahmā should not be confused with the Vedānta concept of Brahman perceived to be the eternal God on par with that of the Monotheism. Brahman, as an eternal God, can not be perceived by human senses or psychic powers. The erroneous interpretation of eternal God is the root of religious discriminations, political turmoils and bloody clashes of human civilizations today.

Dependent Co-arising

The Mahānidāna-sutta (DN15) formulates the 12 factors which dependently co-produce transmigration (saṃsāra). The root is ignorance (avijjā), that is, the failure to perceive the world correctly through right view (sammā-dițțhi). Ignorance can only be eliminated by wisdom – the Right view of the world . Only by wisdom, can the 12 linked chains be severed to liberate a sentient being from the fetters of the cycle of transmigration (saṃsāra). A full apprehension of the three universal characteristics (tilakkhaṇas) of Anicca, Dukkha and Anattāand the Four Noble Truths through realization of the soteriological significance of the four foundations of mindfulness (cattāri satipațțhāna) supported by wisdomcan release the sentient beings from this 12 linked chains. If we cut the root, we cut off all the branches. Ignorance is the root.

Social harmony

Sigālaka-sutta (DN31) is particularly interesting to me as it is identical to the teaching of Confucian ethics which emphasizes social order and harmony of good inter-social relationhship. I value this sutta not only because it is an important social philosophy of Buddhism but also because I have full conviction of the pragmatic value of the Confucian five rules of reciprocal inter-relationship. Confucian ethics and Buddhist ethics are synonymous thoughts though they are divergely paraphrased. In the social dimension, both Gotama Buddha and Confucius convey similar message with two different languages.

This sutta touches on deontological ethics – duties and responsibilities of Man to harmonize the social environment. If the superiors or seniors and the subordinates or juniors discharge their duties and obligations accordingly, it will be certainly an orderly, harmonious, peaceful and prosperous society to live in. Chaos or conflicts arise in the family, societal, national, regional and international relationships when deontological ethics are not honoured reciprocally. This suttamust be mastered by all of us to sustain societal cohesion. They are not confined only to the Buddhists. They are universal applicable.

I am personally upset as this suttais seldom preached and highlighted by the Buddhist preachers for the benefits and well-being of the lay people. It is an important sutta as long as the wellbeing of the lay Buddhists are concerned. The Sutta is the pillar of Buddhist deontological ethics .

Homage by Devas and Brahmas

The Mahāgovinda-sutta (DN19), Mahāsamaya-sutta (DN20) and Sakkha Pañha-sutta (DN21) reported that thousands of devas and brahmas from the ten world systems descended on earth to pay homage to the Buddha and his Arahants. On behalf of all devas and brahmas, Sakkha ,the ruler of the World of 33 gods paid tribute in praise of the Buddha announcing that many superior devas and brahmaswere the Buddha’s former disciples well-trained by him and reborn in the heavenly worlds after demise.

It is important to understand Gotama Buddha’s position with regard to the human beings paying homage to the devas. The Exalted One advises us to pay respect to the devas but we only pay homage to them but we do not take refuge in them as they are still not perfect in Wisdom.

We only take refuge in the highest Truth – Dhamma. Buddhists take refuge in the Buddha, Dhamma and Saṅgha. Buddhist take refuge in the Buddha because Buddha expounds the highest knowledge of the highest or ultimate Truth of Insubstantiality (Anattā) and Dependent Co-arising (Pațiccasamuppāda). Buddhists take refuge in the Dhamma because Dhamma is the highest knowledge of emancipation and human perfection. Buddhists take refuge in the members of the Saṅgha because they are the teachers or instructors of Dhamma. Most importantly, Gotama Buddha recommends that finally all Buddhists should take refuge in one’s own self. Taking refuge in oneself is discerning the Truth in oneself because Man is a microcosm himself. The most perfect refuge is self-realization or intuitive discernment of the Dhamma or the Truth pertaining to one’s own five aggregates. Whoever knows himself (that is the five aggregates or microcosm) knows his Lord . This assertion is universally applicable without exception .

Origin of Mātikas

Those, who are interested in the studies of Theravādins’ Abhidhamma, would find that Mahāparinibbāna-sutta (DN16), Sangitī-sutta(DN33)andDasuttara-sutta (Dn34) are particularly captivating.

It is believed by Buddhist Scholars that the Ābhidhammikas had composed the
Abhidhamma treatises based on the list of key doctrines (mātikas) appearing in these three suttas. It is believed by the Theravādins that Sāriputtawas the founder of Abhidhamma. But hitherto, no one can know for absolute certainty who had composed or compiled the five Abhidhamma treatises except Kathāvatthu. Some attributed directly to the Gotama Buddha who preached the Abhidhamma in the World of devas where his mother was reborn. They believed that Gotama Buddha informed Sāriputta of the Adbhidhammic topics that he had delivered in the world of devas during the daily lunch hour when he returned to earth for lunch. This might be only a legend and may not be true. But the story of Gotama Buddha ascending to the heavenly world and teaching the devas is true. The origins of Abhidhamma remain controversial today. The Theras believed that they were originally preached by the Gotama Buddha to the devas including his mother in the heaven. However, some Theravāda Buddhist scholars advocate the view that Abhidhamma treatises were composed by later Buddhist disciples. I personally opine that any later Buddhist disciples who could compose either Suttas or the Abhidhhama must have been self-enlightened . Otherwise, it is beyond the capacity of an ordinary Buddhist disciples to complete such monumental works of Abhidhamma.

Conclusion

I wish to conclude this book review of Dīgha Nikāya with the final advice (Mahāparinibbānna-sutta) given by Gotama Buddha directly to Ānanda who was visibly upset by the master’s announcement that he would soon enter into parinibbāna. Ānanda was particularly concerned about the loss of a great leader to guide the Saṅgha Order in future when the master was no more with them. This golden advice was generally relevant to all Buddhists who wish to put an end to personal vexation or suffering. Gotama Buddha’s final, precious and very profound advice runs thus :

A man should live an island unto himself. He goes only to the Dhamma for the refuge and with no other refuge. His refuge is the establishment of the four foundations of mindfulness.

The Dharma is to be lived as the only refuge without any other refuge.

We are recommended to take refuge in the four establishment s of mindfulness (cattāri satipațțhāna). The Exalted categorically stresses that Satipațțțhāna is the only way to head towards the soteriological destination of Nibbāna. The function of Satipațțhāna is to efface the arising of self-centric ego.

A saved Christian is saved by the Holy Spirit of God. The Holy Spirit indwells and infills the inner Heart of saved Christian if and only if the self-centric ego is completely annihilated . Hence, Satipațțhāna is the manifest of Holy Spirit in the Christian sense. For a liberated Hindu, Satipațhāna is the manifest of Brahman in the Vedāntin sense. As far as a Sufi are concerned, Satipațțhāna is al-Fanā from the Sufi perspective. Satipațțhāna is the right mindfulness of clear awareness of not allowing the self-centric ego to emerge in the mind. Hence, Gotama Buddha is great to declare that Satipațțhāna is the one and only direct way (ekāyana) to Nibbāna. Nibbāna is salvation which is eternal bliss. Nibbāna is perfection of character formation. The Exalted One is great because his declaration is universally applicable.

Before the Buddha finally passed away into parinibānna, he uttered another short but very profound message thus :

All conditioned things are impermanent;
Strive on diligently.

When one discerns Impermanence, one discerns Insubstantiality. Whoever discerns Insubstantiality discerns Dependent Co-arising. whoever penetrates into Dependent Co-arising penetrates into Unity or Non-duality. Whoever apprehends Unity or Non-duality comprehends the dynamic process becoming. Whoever comprehends dynamic process becoming conceives the Process Thought. Process Thought regulates and sustains satipațhāna . Satipațhāna is Nibbāna. Nibbāna connotes that one is born of Buddha, Brahman or God. One dies before one dies. Nibbāna is the inner Heart of all human beings . The inner Hearts of Buddhist, Hindu , Taoist , Christian and Muslim are all identical. They are originally empty of self-centric ego. Deliverence is the innate nature of Man. Gotama Buddha advises us to strive diligently to go home . Our original home is the inner Heart . Our hearts are originally good . Redeem and get it back.