Issue

8th Issue (June, 2008)

Editor's Preface

The theme of June Edition of Bodhi Journal, 2008 is ‘Early Mahāyāna Sūtras’. Modern contemporary Buddhism has evolved from the Saṅgha schism of Indian Buddhism after the second Buddhist Council around 386 B.C.E. It is an unquestionably valuable treasure of the Dharma legacy inherited from the past Indian Buddhist civilization to evolve into the contemporary global Buddhist civilization. It is still contemporarily divided into two Buddhist traditions - Theravāda and Mahāyāna with an untainted, praiseworthy Buddhist history devoid of any bloodshed due to religious war hitherto.

 Vasumitra of Sarvāstivāda reported the doctrinal controversy pertaining to the historical schism in the monastic community in his treatise ‘Origin and Doctrines of Early Indian Buddhist Schools’ (Samaya-bhedo Paracana-cakra). The five-point controversy (pañcavastūni) over the status of an Arahant was propounded by Mahādeva. Vasumitra identified this controversy as the cause of the Saṅgha schism into Sthaviravāda School and Mahāsāṅghika School after the second Buddhist Council. One needs to immerse in profound Mahāyāna development and practice of the perfection of wisdom (prajñāpāramitā) in order to concur with Mahādeva, the forerunner of Mahāsāṅghika School. Any disputation based on theoretical, rational thinking, unsupported by direct spiritual experience of wisdom, would not be precise and hence, would be deficient. This can be easily ascertained and measured through the barometer of one’s own progressive development of prajñā which serves as a more definite witness to Mahādeva’s proposition. Theoretical disputations alone are adequate and comprehensive to make a sound conclusion. In fact, it may be deficient or inaccurate. A supermodel for Buddhist adherents is a logical positivist and verificationist who has been liberated. Besides, being gnostically experienced, he should be a Buddhist savant on Indian Buddhist historiography in order to insightfully penetrate into the truth underlying the doctrinal controversy.

 However, one must exercise great caution not to jump to the immediate conclusion that Mahāsā̄ṅghika School was the sole forerunner of Mahāyāna movement. The arising of Mahāyāna Buddhism was indeed a complex one. The exact origin of Mahāyana tradition has never been accurately determined and concluded hitherto though the Chinese Buddhist literature from Tian Tai School of Buddhist Thought may help shed more light on this controversial issue. The Japanese Buddhist literature of Hirakawa Akira and Hajime Nakamura also do illuminate upon this issue. We discover that different Buddhist scholars or intelligentsia present dissimilar views.

 The Theravādins recorded this first Buddhist monastic schism in the Mahāvaṃsa (Sri Lankan Buddhist history chronicle) that the split was due to the controversy over the points of monastic rules of discipline (vinaya). Therefore, there were actually two controversies and not just one. This is an evident discrepancy in Buddhist historical record on the cause of the first Buddhist monastic schism (saṅghabheda).

 Theoretical disputations and historical rational analysis are still confined to the domain of ontological commitment (substantial view or metaphysical ideas). Buddhist theosophy requires intuitive understanding or direct empirical experience of the absolute essence of Insubstantiality (Anattā) or the Buddha-nature (Dharmadhātu) and the intuitive apprehension of the emptiness (Śūnyatā) of the five aggregates. Buddhism is both exoteric (conventional truth) and esoteric (ultimate Truth). We need both the exoteric and esoteric knowledge of Buddhism to comprehend the cause of first Saṅgha schism. Understanding of both dimension of exotercism and esotericism can help us ascertain more accurately the origin of Mahāyāna.

 Knowledge of historiography, archaeological findings and Buddhist scholarship and intelligensiaship are merely exoteric. They are not inadequate evidences to support a precise or comprehensive conclusion on the origination of Mahāyāna tradition. As I have stressed earlier, it must be complemented with direct esoteric experience of progressive development of prajñā – living the Truth or Wisdom progressively until the summit of wisdom or gnosis is experienced. One must reach the climax of Buddhist spirituality of emptiness of emptiness (Śūnyatā-Śūnyatā) in order to make a more definite and accurate conclusion. Emptiness of emptiness is the destruction of destruction. Firstly, the notion of self, ego or self-nature of all phenomena is destroyed. Secondly, it must follow that the notion of such destruction is also destroyed. In other words, there should be no grasping upon even the notion of destruction or emptiness. It is a state of complete non-duality and purity of mind without any taint of self or ego in which the delusion due to illusive multiplicity has vanished entirely.

In the features section, Scott Quyen Ngo’s article on ‘The Origin of Mahāyāna’ presents his penetrating research on the origin(s) of Mahāyāna tradition. His research findings are based on the current Buddhist scholars’ insightful visions and rational, empirical speculations on the possible origin(s) of early Mahāyāna Sūtras or Mahāyāna Buddhism based on historical data from Buddhist literature and archaelogical evidences. This essay merely mirrors the viewpoints of Bro. Quyen. It does not represent the platform of Bodhi Journal. Anyway, it is still a very readable and precisely informative essay on the origination of Mahāyāna tradition according to the research findings of the Buddhist scholars or savants.

The second featured article is ‘Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra: Mind Only’ contributed by Satiman. Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra, believed to be forerunner of Chan or Zen tradition, expounds Yogācāra’s worldview that the external empirical world is merely the manifestation of the human mind. Its tenet of ‘Only the mind is real and the external world is illusory and unreal’ is very significant and very penetrating and discerning from spiritual perspective.

The third featured article is Rev.S.Barua’s article on ‘Nāgārjuna’s Śūnyatā Doctrine as Seen in the MMK’. The writer elucidates Nāgājuna’s astute wisdom in utilizing the concept of Emptiness to define Dependent Co-arising and to relinquish all views to obliterate grasping which is the cause of vexation. He also ultilized it to refute the non-empty or substantialist views of his opponents.

The first academic article is Wong Weng Hon’s article on ‘Prajñāpāramitā-sūtras: Elimination of Ontological commitment Appeases the Human Mind’. Ontological commitment is the substantial view of all phenomena in which objects are reified as discrete entities or independently existing real existents separate from others. Elimination of ontological commitment or substantial view brings about the cessation of object reification, the cessation of resultant grasping, and the cessation of false conceptualization and mental obsessions.

Aṣtasāhasrikā Prajñāp̄ramitā-sūtra contributed by Ng Yeow Foo is the second featured academic article. This Mahāyāna Scripture of Perfection of Wisdom should be read as an advanced interpretation of the profound message of the Buddha relative to Nikāya Buddhism. The most advanced of the all the Mahāyāna Sūtras is the concluding Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa S̄ūtra discoursed by Śākyamuni Buddha just before his demise.

The third academic article is ‘The Enlightenment Energy of the Buddha’ contributed by Ven. Assaji Tanchangya. Ven. Assaji describes the attributes of the Buddha, right definition of Pureland, and expedient devices as the Buddhist strategically tailored pedagogy employed by the Buddha to save sentient beings.

In the Section on Reflections, Wong Weng Hon presents his Dharma specialized discipline on ‘ The Quintessence of Diamond Sūtra: X is not X and is still X’. He formulates the central theme of Diamond Sūtra - the three-fold truth of One-Mind-in-three-Contemplations, in the form of X= -X =+X. The three-fold truth to be contemplated are Illusion, Emptiness and Middle Path. Whoever intuitively discerns the three truths of the conventional knowledge, ultimate knowledge and middle philosophy simultaneously culminates in the self-actualization of the perfection of wisdom.

The second contribution in the Section on Reflections is the work of Wong Weng Hon on ‘ Vimalakīrti Unveiling Right meditation for Sharp-rooted Learners’. He analyses the thoughts and Wisdom of Vimalakīrti, a householder Bodhisattva. Vimalakīrti expounds that right meditation is not just sitting meditation. Right meditation is that one’s mind is completely appeased and cankerless while one is socially, altruistically, compassionately active in mundane activities. It is the capacity of the application of Perfection of Wisdom in all daily mundance activities without mental corruptions or cankers. This is living wisdom of Chan or Zen practice. It is the living meditation and the living perfection of wisdom.

The third contribution in the Reflection column is the essay ‘Impact of Mahāyāna on Sri Lanka’. The writer furnishes a candid and very informative feedbacks on the Mahāyāna influence or impact on the Buddhist culture of Sri Lanka. However, there are only exoteric influences of Mahāyānism.

K.S.Chow contributes the first poem on ‘The Heart of Diamond Sūtra’. This poem encapsulates or summarizes the central tenet or key ideas of the Diamond
Sūtra. Whoever applies the Perfection of Wisdom embodied in the Diamond Sūtra is said to be able to live the life of Chan or Zen in the true sense of Dharma.

The second poem on ‘Saddharmapuṇḍarika-sūtra: A Bird-eye View of Lotus Sūtra’ is the work of K.Wong. The poem summarizes the key doctrinal points of the Lotus Sūtra comprising

1. Original Purity
2. One-vehicle only
3. Expedient Means
4. Dharma-realm of Unity

The third poem is ‘Heart Sūtra’ is contributed by our regular contributor, Mandy Mui. The poem encapsulates the quintessence of Heart Sūtra which is the abridgement of the Scriptures of Perfection of Wisdom (Prajñāpāramitā-sūtras).She specializes in poetry writing.

Generally, there are three conceived theories pertaining to the origins of early Mahāyāna Sūtras. Such similar theories are also applicable to the compilation of the Suttapiṭaka of the Theravāda traditions. These three theories are:

1. Scriptural compilations from Direct Word of Śākyamuni Buddha
2. Scriptural compilations from Indirect Word of Śākyamuni compiled by later Buddhist Disciples
3. Original scriptural compositions by later Buddhist disciples who had discerned the Word of the Tathāgata.

One fact is definite: The exact origins of the emergence of early Mahāyāna Sūtras have not been accurately determined. Obviously, there is a spiritual or doctrinal distinction between the two traditions which resulted in Saṅgha schism after the second Buddhist Council. In the Lotus Sūtra, Śākyamuni Buddha declared shockingly that in his 40 years of delivering Dharma discourses, he had not spoken a word. This is great doubt or puzzle which has plunged multitudes of Buddhists into confusion. The Blessed One did not joke. He spoke the Truth. In actuality, the Tathāgata always spoke the truth. Whoever does not speak the truths can not become a Tathāgata. It is useful to infer and grasp properly what he actually conveyed through the Lotus Sūtra.

Śākyamuni Buddha had indeed preached the Dharma for 40 years. But that was only the knowledge of conventional truth which is illusive. The highest knowledge of the conventional Truth is the concept of Non-self or Insubstantiality (Anattā) which can be conceiveable intellectually. But the inconceivable ultimate Truth of universal Self of great Nirvāṇa was only expounded just before his demise in the Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra. This sūtra is different from the Mahāparinibbāna-sutta (DN) of the Theravāda tradition. The Buddha promulgated that the Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra is the most comprehensive and concluding discourse consummating the conclusion of the entire Bodhisattva career of Śākyamuni Buddha. It was not preached earlier to all audience of the Saṅgha because it was too obstruse to those ordinary Buddhist disciples. In this final Mahāyāna discourse, the Buddha unveiled the inconceivable Truth of Eternity, Bliss, Self, and Purity to his high ranking Buddhist disciples. Whoever does not grasp these four attributes of the Buddha does not truly comprehend the profound teaching of the Buddha.

 At the microcosm level, this universal Self is the True Self of the Buddha-nature (Dharmdhātu) or the womb of Tathāgata (Tathāgathagarbha) by which the three worlds of desire, form and formless are created by the human mind. At the macrocosm level, the Self is the eternal Unity of the in finite cosmos. Whoever intuitively apprehends the relationship between microcosm and macrocsom discerns the correlation between phenomena and the Principle. The phenomena are the domain of the knowledge of conventional truth. The Principle is the domain of the ultimate Truth of dependent co-arisen Unity or Non-duality known as the Dharma realm of Unity. Seeing self or ego is the perception of the conditioned phenomenal world.Seeing non-self is the elimination of ego. Seeing the universal Self is dwelling in great Nirvāṇa resonating with the Dharma realm of all Buddhas known as the Dharma realm of Unity.

The doctrine of ‘Five Periods and Eight Teachings’ of the renowned Chinese Tian Tai philosopher, Zhi-yi sheds much light on the emergence or origin of Mahāyāna Buddhism. I opine that Zhi-yi to enjoy equal philosophical standing and Dharma realization to the celebrated Nāgārjuna and the equally eminent Sufi philosopher, Ibn ‘ArabīI. I personally invite the readers to scrutinize astutely and ascertain the Truth of microcosm and macrocosm expounded in some of the influencial and unveiling ancient Buddhist and non-Buddhist classics or treatises. Invigorating by one’s own genuine practices, one will then discern the worldview of Mahāyāna more accurately. Most importantly, the pragmatic value is that the Truth obliterates one’s fallibilities and perfects one’s character formation. The following classics or treatises are the communal treasures of mankind which illuminate darkness of ignorance with the communal Truth of ‘One in All and All in One’:

1. Mūlamadhyamakakārikā of Nāgārjuna (Buddhism)
2. ‘The Great Calming and Contemplation’ and ‘The Esoteric Meaning’ of Zhi Yi (Buddhism)
3. Vedānta or Upaniṣads (Hinduism)
4. Fuṣūṣ al-Ḥikam of Ibn ‘Arabī (Islam or Sufism)

All the aforementioned texts contain the communal doctrine of the heart or esoteric wisdom of theosophy which can save mankind. The beauty of intuitive comprehension of Mahāyāna tenet is that you would emerge as an awakened esotericist who love all religions without any discrimination.In fact, an esotericist transcend all religious denominations. The saved esotericists do not cause troubles but the unsaved exotericists still do. The exotericists only know the knowledge of the doctrine of the head without the doctrine of the heart. The doctrine of heart is the esoteric religion. The Mahāyāna Sūtras are fundamentally or primarily esoteric.

The distinction between Theravāda and Mahāyāna should not be unnecessarily highlighted. Instead, the communal Truth of wisdom should be discovered. In actuality, Śākyamuni Buddha preaches only one Truth – the Truth of Non-self (no self-centred ego) or Anattā. Anattā is parallel to Dependent co-arising (Paṭiccasamuppāda). Both Anattā and Paṭiccassamuppāda constitute intrinsically the ultimate Truth of Unity or Non-duality. The middle way (the middlle philosophy) is to live the knowledge of the Unity or Non-duality (The One) in the world of multiplicity (the many) with universal love of non-discriminative wisdom. In order to practise this perfection of wisdom, the raft of either Theravāda or Mahāyāna must be totally discarded when the climax of perfect knowledge is reached. Having thus arrived soteriologically, he loves all other religions because he has emerged as a theosophist in his or own religion without the need to convert. This is the summit of all religions. The entire world of diversity or plurality can be united through this communal truth of soteriological realization. There is only one world and one dream.

Editor