Issue

11th Issue (March, 2009)

The Roles of Desire in Driving the Economic Development from the Buddhist Perspective

By Ng Yeow Foo
ngfoo@yahoo.com

The basic teachings of Buddhism which hover around concepts, such as impermanence, controlling one’s desires, and contentment in a way create the impression for misinterpreting Buddhism as a religion only for the renunciants and without any socio-economic value at all. Buddhism is always being “accused” of labeling human desire as negative, should be restrained, while on the other hand, in  the world of consumerism, desire is the key to attract markets and sales. Non-Buddhists tend to think that Buddhists are rather individualistic, in which oftentimes lack the contribution to the development of the highly competitive society today.

However, a careful examination into the goals of life of the Buddha, Arahants and the lay people, we see the contrary. In the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta, the Buddha reveals his fourfold ideal society which consists of the renunciants [monks (bhikkhus) and nuns (bhikkhunis)] and the lay followers [laymen (upāsakas) and laywomen (upāsikas)]. Monks and nuns have Buddhahood as the ultimate goal, while laymen have the “universal monarch”[1] as the highest desired achievement. Not every Buddhist is able to attain Nibbāna, at least in this present life time. Having said that, it does not mean that the monks and nuns can live without doing something beneficial to the society. The monastic community forms the centre of the whole Buddhist society. Both the monastic community and the laity co-exist together depending on each other.[2] Therefore, both are of equal status, equipped with their respective social responsibility.

The above explanation clearly proves that Buddhism does not shy away from promoting the social growth, particularly in economic development. In fact, the Buddha condemns poverty as recorded in the Aṅguttara Nikāya: “Poverty, O monks, is suffering in the world for one who enjoys sensual pleasures.”[3]

The Two Desires

As mentioned in the first paragraph, modern society often regards “desire” as the remedy in stimulating economic growth. In the world of business and consumerism, desire has been identified as one of the so-called human’s inborn weaknesses for the purpose of promoting sales. Through the work of commercials coupled with human’s never-ending desire, people tend to want and crave for more and more to satisfy their sensual pleasures.

Buddha has identified that the fire of desire or passion is the main cause of human’s dissatisfactions. Contentment which leads to the end of sufferings is the antidote of desire. Nevertheless, this does not mean that Buddhism condemns economic growth at all, as desire is not always treated as negative at all times. In Buddhism, there are two different types of desire: taṅhā and chanda. Based on the Pāli-English Dictionary by T. W. Rhys Davids and Willliam Stede, taṅhā means craving, hunger for excitement, and the fever for unsatisfied longing, which is arisen upon the contact between senses and their sense objects. Whereas chanda is described as an impulse, intention, resolution or will that is always combined with other good qualities. The main characteristic that differentiates these two types of desire is driving force behind them: whether it is based on ignorance (avijjā) or wisdom (paññā). Taṅhā is directed towards the fulfillment of sensual pleasures and only to make ourselves happy; it springs out of human’s root of all sufferings, ignorance. When actions are driven by taṅhā, usually the ethical elements are forgotten. Buddha recognises that it is natural for human beings to crave and desire for things in their life. In economic point of view, people are endowed to accumulate wealth in order to live a better life. We crave  things that we love. This is natural, however, Buddhism does recognise a positive side of desire. Desire is needed for acquiring right knowledge, for progress and benefits of others. Without desire, there is no motivation at all for us to “avoid evil, do good, and purify the mind”[4] . That is the description of what chanda should rightly be.

The Three Poisons

Greed, hatred and delusion (rāga, dosa, moha) are identified as the three poisons in Buddhism which deter one from realising higher states. However, by looking from the other angle of viewpoint, as human beings, we need some degree of greed to eat and survive; a little bit of hatred for self-protection; and some delusion to facilitate our modern social relationship.[5] This is simply the nature of human survival instinct: we must have the motivation (certain degree of greed is needed) to fill up our empty stomach. Anything beyond this basic need of the three poisons is extra and simply meant for satisfying our sensual pleasures.

Having said that, however, we should bear in mind every action should not be fully motivated by these three poisons. What I want to say here is that they (at a considerable “dose”) should be treated as means for maintaining the body and mind for higher achievement. They should be skillfully and mindfully utilised in order not to be trapped by the calls of never-ending desire. Only at the state of the unconditioned or Nibbāna, these three poisons are completely abandoned.

When we place this in the issue of economic growth, it appears that things follow the same rule too. People go after a product for the fulfillment of their basic need, be it physically or mentally or spiritually. Basic desire is needed. But the problems would surface if the amount of greed exceeds what is rightly needed. People will get themselves into heavy debt just for the enjoyment of their sensual pleasures, then liability for interests from the creditors, leading to being harassed by the creditors upon inability to settle the debts and interests, and finally bankruptcy or imprisonment.[6] (Would this remind you of the economic crisis that the world is facing currently?)

The Desire for Happiness

Buddhist definition of development does not limit to spiritual attainment alone. It encompasses both spiritual and mundane cultivation. The aim is to obtain happiness not only in this life but also in the life thereafter. In one of the chapters in the Aṅguttara Nikāya[7] , the Buddha talks about four kind of happiness, which may be achieved by a layperson who enjoys sensual pleasures, depending on time and occasion: the happiness of possession, the happiness of enjoyment, the happiness of debtlessness and the happiness of blamelessness. See that all these happiness are gained based on righteous conducts and meritorious deeds. It is therefore a very positive thing for a layperson to pursue his desire for these four kinds of happiness in the society.

The above discussion on happiness would then lead us to the Buddhist perspectives on social and economic development. It must be made clear that Buddhism does not measure development merely in terms of Gross National Product  or the per-capita income of people. The measurement of Gross National Happiness and the equitability of the distribution of happiness in the society should be given an equivalent status in determining the progress and the level development of a country. A filthy rich country may be envied by others in the materialistic sense, but the level of happiness in its society might not be the case at all. Prof Premasiri regards that “ungratified” desire is the main source of human suffering.[8] The nature of desire in human beings is unsatisfactory and restless, which transforms into unreasonable needs that result in more discontent and frustration in the society. As long as the desire is fused by ignorance (in the case of taṅha as mentioned earlier), the further we are from the achievement of a sustainable development.

Conclusion

It is obvious that Buddhism does not neglect the mundane development of the society. It is not wrong to desire for happiness, as long as it is based on Buddhist domain of morality. Without the laypeople supporting the monastic community, there would be no monks and nuns who ensure the continuity of the teachings of the Buddha. The laity has different missions and goals, and the desire for economic well-being and happiness are their priority. The monastic community is therefore the essential reference point that expounds the positive and healthy economic and political structures. There are two-fold desire as mentioned earlier, and it is crucial to determine which one should drive the economic decisions. To conclude, let’s reflect on this wise saying by the Buddha:

Health is the greatest gift, contentment is the greatest wealth, a trusted friend is the best kinsman, Nibbāna is the greatest bliss.

Dhammapada Verse 204

 

Bibliography

Buddhist Economics: A Middle Way for the Market Place by Ven P.A. Payutto. Assessed at http://www.buddhanet.net/cmdsg/econ.htm

Butr-Indr, S. The Social Philosophy of Buddhism. Bangkok: Mahamakut Buddhist University. 1995.

Premasiri, P.D., Studies in Buddhist Philosophy and Religion. Collected Papers of Professor P. D. Premasiri. Singapore: Buddha Dhamma Mandala Society & Sri Lanka: Department of Pali and Buddhist Studies, University of Peradeniya, 2006.

Thera, Nyanaponika and Bodhi, Bhikkhu, trans. and edited. Numerical Discourses of the Buddha: An Anthology of Suttas from the Aªguttara Nik±ya. Delhi: Vistaar Publications, 2000.